Biodiversity strategies and legitimacy in the golf industry
This study examines how biodiversity strategies are implemented across the golf industry by analyzing sustainability initiatives from golf courses, equipment manufacturers, and professional tours, with the aim of understanding whether biodiversity engagement is primarily symbolic or substantive. Golf courses occupy millions of acres globally and directly shape ecosystems through land management, water use, habitat modification, and chemical applications. The paper illustrates how sport and leisure sectors face unique tensions between environmental stewardship, business legitimacy, and operational realities.
The authors conducted an AI-assisted qualitative content analysis of 543 biodiversity-related passages extracted from 152 sustainability documents published between 2019 and 2025. They classified biodiversity initiatives according to temporal-spatial dimensions (conservation, restoration, compensation, reparation) and organizational orientations (internal/external and managerial/technical).
Biodiversity actions in golf overwhelmingly focused on conservation-oriented and internally managed strategies, while compensation and offsetting mechanisms were rare. Certified golf courses showed the most substantive ecological engagement through habitat restoration and operational management practices, whereas manufacturers relied more heavily on symbolic partnerships and sustainability rhetoric, and professional tours emphasized highly visible tournament-based conservation initiatives.
The golf industry still faces a significant legitimacy gap between biodiversity communication and measurable ecological outcomes, and the authors argue that future progress will require stronger accountability systems, landscape-scale conservation collaborations, credible compensation mechanisms, and broader diffusion of biodiversity practices beyond elite showcase venues to everyday golf facilities.
CITE: Howell, J. P., & Moore, J. (2026). Greens in Regulation: Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Across the Golf Industry. Business Strategy and the Environment. DOI: 10.1002/bse.70746
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